Oke, Pada Kesempatan kali ini, saya akan berbagi sebuah E-book, yang berjudul "From Corpus to Classroom : Language Use and Language Teaching". sangat cocok untuk Anda yang sedang bingung mencari referensi. Khususnya bagi Mahasiswa Tingkat Akhir yang lagi nyusun skripsinya. Silhkan dibaca - baca, berikut kutipan Preafacenya :
In recent years, conferences on applied linguistics and teacher development, as well as
published material such as books, articles and newsletters, frequently refer to developments
and findings in the field of corpus linguistics. An increasing number of materials and
resources for use in language teaching and learning now boast that they are ‘corpus-based’
or ‘corpus-informed’. Indeed, in the pioneering area of learners’ dictionaries, one could
hardly imagine any major publisher nowadays putting out a dictionary that was not based
on a corpus, such was the revolution sparked off by Sinclair’s COBUILD dictionary project
in the s. Similarly, corpus information, in recent years, seems to be becoming de rigueur
as the basis of the compilation of major reference grammars, and, more and more, as a
major feature of coursebooks, though here the picture is more patchy at the time of writing.
However, widespread use of ‘corpus linguistics’ does not mean that the term or its
findings are necessarily fully or widely understood in the context of language pedagogy. In
addition, many important developments in the field of corpus linguistics are not always
communicated or usefully mediated in terms of their implications for language teaching.
This is possibly because corpus linguists are very often not language teachers and spend a
lot of time talking with one another rather than with teachers. This book aims to address
the frequent mismatch between corpus linguistics research and what goes into materials
and resources, and what goes on in the language classroom. It aims to highlight the outcomes
which we consider to be relevant and transferable in terms of how they can inform
pedagogy, or challenge how and what we teach. But the book stops at the classroom door.
We do not intend to tell you how to teach and what to do in your own classes; only you can
know best what is effective and appropriate in your specific local context, and you are by
far the best person to take the final, practical steps in applying our ‘applied’ linguistics, if
you judge the book to have value.
Not all descriptive findings about language are of relevance to how and what we teach,
but very many of them are.Here we aim to start with the basics.We do not assume any prior
knowledge or experience of corpus linguistics. The book begins by explaining what is meant
by a corpus, how one is made, and the most common techniques that can be used to analyse
language in a corpus. We also aim to identify what we see as key findings that may lead to
new pedagogical insights for language teachers. In so doing, the book aims to provide the
critical knowledge and stimulus for language teachers to get involved in the exciting area of
corpus linguistics and to make informed decisions about corpus findings in terms of how,
or whether, these can inform their teaching, translate into classroom practice, or inform
their choices of materials and other resources. Nowadays, given the bewildering range of
available materials and the inevitable claims of publishers that theirs are the best, it helps
more than ever to be able, calmly and confidently, to question and evaluate claims made
about materials, especially in the relatively new area of corpus-informed ones.
We are aware that a book entitled From Corpus to Classroom promises many things. It
is helpful, at this stage, to make clear what it is not. This book is not about data-driven
learning (often referred to as DDL), that is, where data from language corpora (most typically
concordances) are used in a hands-on manner in the classroom by the learners. There
are many existing publications which address and facilitate this approach. This book is not
about telling language teachers how to teach.We are not saying ‘this is what it says in a corpus
and so you have to teach it’. This book does not provide ‘off-the-shelf ’ solutions or
materials that can be rolled out in any and every classroom. It is about informing the reader
of the relevant research that is on-going in the field of corpus linguistics and summarising
the findings in terms of what we, its authors, consider to have relevance to language
teaching. It is about making such research accessible by explaining key concepts, beginning
with the assumption of zero background knowledge in the area. Our aim is to facilitate a
discerning understanding of what it actually means when claims are made that such things
as syllabuses, reference resources and teaching materials are ‘corpus-based’.
Most of the chapters in this book draw primarily on spoken language corpora, so
much so that at one point, we debated whether the word ‘spoken’ should be included in the
title. However, given that most books on corpora draw primarily on written data and do
not feel any need to make this explicit in their titles, we have decided not to apologise for
our attempt to redress the balance. Most of our research, over the years, has endeavoured
to challenge the dominance of the written word.We hope that this is also the case here.
We are also very conscious in this book that there is a proliferation of corpora dedicated to the
English language.Where possible we try to use as many types of Englishes as we have been
able to access, and we sometimes refer to research that relates to languages other than
English.We accept that we come nowhere near finding a balance, and could hardly do so in
a book aimed at a wide international readership for whom English is typically the professional
lingua franca, but we think that it is important to highlight this point at the outset.
At the time of writing, there is far more corpus-based research into English than into any
other language (see Wilson, Rayson and McEnery for more on corpora of languages
other than English). Perhaps some of the readers of this book can contribute to redressing
the imbalance by building on the existing work using non-English data.
The book opens with a foundational chapter which aims to provide the critical
knowledge for building and using a corpus. It also focuses on key issues and debates that
have emerged around corpus research.We feel these need to be addressed as a backdrop to
the chapters which follow. These issues centre mostly around debates about authenticity
and native speakers versus non-native speakers.We are conscious throughout the book to
avoid absolutism in relation to native versus non-native speakers of a language.We take the
position that the concept of the ideal native speaker is an ephemeral one, and we search in
vain for that elusive phantom in our corpora. Real speakers whose utterances we analyse in
corpus examples are very often struggling with the demands of real-time communication.
Indeed, if we compare the everyday human activities of talking and walking, talking has
been compared to a series of uncertain lurches rather than to smooth walking (Krauss et al.
).We therefore find the term ‘Successful User of English’ (SUE), after the work of Luke
Prodromou (a), to be a much more appropriate term than ‘native speaker’. This is discussed
and exemplified in chapter one.
All three authors of this book have been inspired by the seminal work of John Sinclair
in the field of corpus linguistics, and the structure of the book is motivated by the importance
that his work places on the word as the starting point for the description of meaning.
As he puts it, ‘the word is the unit that aligns grammar and vocabulary’ (Sinclair a: ).
Hence the body of the book is structured so that it moves from the word to everyday strings
of words (or chunks) and idioms, then onto grammar, which subsequently leads us into
pragmatics, discourse and creativity. Finally, the closing chapters of the book look at specialised
corpora in the areas of teacher development and the institutional contexts of academic
and business communication.
Chapter 2 looks at the most frequently occurring words in written and spoken
English. It focuses on the pedagogical relevance of corpus findings in terms of our understanding
of the vocabulary needs of second language learners.We explore how this information
can be beneficial for establishing benchmarks by which learners’ vocabulary levels
can be assessed and by which we may come to some general agreement as to what constitutes
the various levels of proficiency in vocabulary knowledge.
Chapter 3 brings us from the single word to clusters of words, or chunks. Corpus software
can tell us what the most frequent chunks in a language are, but this information in
its raw form is not terribly illuminating. This chapter proposes a functional categorisation
for the most frequent items and explores some of the issues connected with working with
chunks in the classroom.
Chapter 4 addresses idioms. This chapter gives consideration to how we define idioms
and how they can be extracted from a corpus. This is a qualitative and interpretive process
(a computer does not know what an idiom is), and one which we hope can be replicated by
those interested in exploring this area further. We take a broad view of idioms and we
believe the classification has transfer for the classroom and, particularly, for the design of
materials for the teaching of idioms.
In the progression from the single word and lexical chunks, chapter 5 brings us to the
next level ‘up’, that is the interface between lexis and grammar, or ‘lexico-grammar’. The
phraseological or lexico-grammatical patterns that we explore here, such as choices
between he’s not and he isn’t, are found to be systematic and go beyond a straightforward
grammatical description.
Chapter 6 brings us from phrasal- and clausal-level considerations to discourse and
pragmatics. This is contextualised using two structures which are very familiar to language
teachers: non-restrictive (sometimes called non-defining) which-clauses, and if-clauses.
We aim to show how a corpus can reveal a lot about the pragmatic force of grammatical
choices.
In chapter 7 we focus on one aspect of discourse which we see as having great relevance
to language pedagogy and the promotion of fluency. Here we concentrate on the
notion of listenership, whereby interaction is seen as a two way speaker-hearer process. For
spoken discourse to be successful, it demands that the listener responds appropriately to the
ongoing speaker turns. The markers of successful listenership are explored, using corpus
data, both in terms of the typical structures that are used by listeners and in terms of how
they can perform different functions.
Chapter 8 brings together all the chapters that precede it by focusing on how words,
chunks and lexico-grammatical patterns can have relational functions. It focuses on areas
of spoken language which, in the past, have mostly been the domain of pragmatics and conversation
analysis, but which can be explored very effectively in both a quantitative and
qualitative way using corpora (for example, small talk, conversational routines, hedging,
vague language).
Chapter 9 explores corpus examples in terms of the everyday creativity of users and
addresses how this can be appreciated and enjoyed in the classroom. This chapter is a good
example of our attempts to redress the balance between spoken and written English.We are
very used to talking about creativity in written prose and poetry, but rarely consider it in
spoken language. Now that the ephemerality of the spoken word can be overcome by looking
at spoken corpus data, we see this as an important contribution to the building of
frameworks for looking at spoken language in this way.We also hope that this chapter will
go some way to redress the bias towards the rather utilitarian views of language immanent
in many versions of communicative language teaching.
Chapter 10 deals with academic and business corpora and what lessons these have for
the courses that we teach and the materials that we use. Here both written and spoken data
are used and high frequency vocabulary items are discussed. The chapter aims to show the
value of smaller and specialised corpora in contrast to the ever-bigger, billion-word-plus
corpora built by major publishers primarily to serve the needs of lexicographers.
The final chapter in the body of the book is intended to facilitate the use of corpora
in teacher education and development. It is a very broad chapter in a number of ways, and
indeed it differs from all the previous chapters. It is broad in the sense that it offers the possibility
of a corpus as a collection of transcribed classroom interactions, even if it is just following
one class or group of students. This is sufficient, we believe, as a starting point to
using a corpus for teacher reflection. As little as one class can provide enough material to
facilitate scrutiny of the commonest processes of classroom interaction. It is also broad in
the sense that it provides three frameworks which can be used by teachers as the basis for
reflecting on practice. None of these frameworks comes from corpus linguistics (and many
of our readers may already be aware of them), but they all have much to offer to the interpretation
of classroom discourse in a corpus. We end the book with a coda, which looks forward to the future.
We have enjoyed writing this book very much. It has challenged us to look at what we
do and articulate its relevance and implications for pedagogy.We hope that by the end of
the book you are as excited about what corpus linguistics has to offer language pedagogy as
we are, and that the book will have bridged a conceptual gap, and facilitated access to an
area of immense potential for language teachers, syllabus designers and materials writers
and researchers in the area of applied linguistics.
Bagi rekan - rekan yang mau file Pdf nya untuk membaca lebih lengkap, silahkan download dibawah ini : Jangan Lupa baca juga, Cara Membuat Screenshoot pada PC / Laptop (How to make Screenshoot on PC / Laptop)